PRANATI DATTA

The process of urbanisation in India has been slow with lopsided concentration of population in large cities. Unsustainable cities marked by a variety of environmental problems are the outcomes. Innovative city planning and public awareness are steps to counter these processes.

Urbanisation is a process of switch from disperse pattern of human settlements to one of concentration in urban centers as espoused by K Davis way back in 1962. It is a finite process, a cycle through which nations pass as they evolve from agrarian to industrial society.
India's urbanisation is by itself low-involving huge numbers, thereby placing a significant strain on the country's environment in terms of infrastructure and natural resources. Deforestation, soil erosion, water pollution and land degradation continue to worsen, casting an adverse effect on economic development in rural India. At the same time, India's booming metropolises strain the limits of municipal services and raise serious air, land and water pollution concerns. This paper provides an overview of dynamics of urbanisation and its impact on environment in few select cities of India. It deals with the urban process followed by a brief discussion on environmental impact of polluting agents in the cities.

The Author is Associate Scientist, Population Studies Unit, Indian Statistical Institute,
Kolkata, Email: pranati@isical.ac.in 

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Migration to Mumbai
Dr RAJIVA PRASAD

The nature of migrants to Mumbai warrant differentiated planning and alternatives for the city as well as the suburbs. A study based on about 11,000 migrant households spread over the city and its constituent units show that Greater Mumbai has emerged as a site for recent young migrants who are first-time job seekers whereas the surrounding constituent settlements of the agglomeration house relatively better equipped, settled migrants who have moved for over two decades.

The total population of Mumbai has grown from nearly 3 million in 1951 to 12 million in 2001, an increase of nearly four times in just fifty years. The corresponding increase in the Greater Mumbai Urban Agglomeration has been from 3.2 million to more than 16 million. Census data show that post 1961-1981, the population growth has declined both within the corporation limits of Greater Mumbai and other constituent units (Table 1). The estimated population projection indicates that Mumbai city will become the third most populous city in the world by 2050.

An important industrial and commercial business centre of India, Mumbai City has a long history of migration-perhaps one of the major forces behind the city's very rapid population growth. The East India Company had shifted its registered office from Surat to Mumbai in mid 17th century and with them its indigenous Parsi and Gujarati trader partners also migrated. From the mid 19th century onwards, Mumbai entered the industrial era with the labour intensive textile industry attracting migrants from all parts of India. Connectivity through both road and rail transport network with cotton rich hinterland on one hand and densely populated northern states on the other was added attractions for migrants. As against localised labour movements in the earlier decades, the first few decades of the twentieth century saw many migrating for work, from far off places, and also due to distressed situations and natural calamities.

The Author is Associate Professor, International Institute for Population Sciences, Deonar, Mumbai 400088 E.mail: rajiva.prasad@rediffmail.com

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Energy conservation has become a strategic issue for telecom service providers as energy saved translates into profit, less emission of carbon into the atmosphere, and can be used to meet the demand of priority sectors as the gap is seriously growing between the consumption and production.

Energy and its efficient use are some of the most important inputs for the growth of economy and human development especially because of the increasing gap between consumption and generation. A major step towards this direction is the Energy Conservation Act, 2001 which empowers the Central Government to prescribe energy conservation building codes to define norms and standards for the energy performance of buildings and their components. The telecom sector is one of the primary consumers of energy. Globally, the sector's carbon emission in 2002 and for projected year 2020 demonstrates the urgent need for energy conservation (Figure 1).

The various steps that have already been taken to conserve energy are briefly discussed here. Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL) which has dominant telecom infrastructure in the country-with 37,936 buildings and several tens of thousands of base transceiver stations pan India. In 2007, the annual electricity bill of BSNL was more than Rs 1400 crore indicating a huge possibility of conservation. The energy conservation building code (ECBC) prepared by Bureau of Energy Efficiency outlines the minimum requirement for energy efficient design and construction of building and its systems. The following sections describe how these are being implemented in building designing, equipment room lighting, cooling systems, common lighting and support systems, etc., in telecom buildings of BSNL. The energy consumption in telecom buildings is primary made up of three components-equipment: 50 to 55 per cent; air conditioning to support equipment temperatures: 30 to 35 per cent; and, lighting and support systems: 15 to 33 per cent.

The Author is Principal General Manager, Bangalore Telephones,
BSNL. Email : sghosh@bsnl.co.in

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POWERTEL The Emerging Telecom Giant
Staff Reporter 

The Indian growth story as an emerging market has been acknowledged world over. The potential for growth in telecom is huge, keeping in view the current modest tele-densities in the country vis-à-vis the developed countries. With the opening of 3G networks, demand for bandwidth is expected to grow manifold in the days ahead.

The Indian communication market witnessed the dawn of liberalisation with the release of New Telecom Policy, 1999 by the Indian Government, which allowed the usage of backbone network of public and private transmission companies for national long distance (NLD) data communication from January, 2000. As power networks are closest to conventional telephone networks, with trunk/branch routes, and lines leading to homes, therefore it was an excellent business opportunity for power utilities to provide telecommunication services capitalising upon their existing infrastructural advantages. Various power utilities world over have successfully diversified into this business.

The emerging opportunity in telecom paved the way for the national grid network - POWERGRID to operate telecommunication infrastructure and provide services to varied telecom service providers or end users. The transmission lines provided an excellent right of way (ROW) for stringing optical fibre cable and setting up a relatively low cost, high quality telecom system. This encouraged POWERGRID's foray into commercial telecom business, enabling it to create additional revenue and thus POWERTEL was established in 2003.

Energy management system (EMS) supported by dedicated wide band communications network coincided with the opening up of the Indian telecom sector. POWERGRID's diversification into telecom business that eventually resulted in an all India network of approximately 21,000 km of optical fibre cable (OFC). The infrastructure supported the national telecom growth by establishing connectivity to un-served and remote areas of the north east and Jammu and Kashmir.

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Global Temperature and Indian Monsoon
NITYANAND SINGH, ASHWINI RANADE & H N SINGH

 

The intensity and variability of monsoon rain depend upon several parameters of atmospheric circulation, which in turn are interlinked with global climate. Changes in global temperatures are likely to make about 1500 billion cubic metres of surplus rainwater annually available. To capture this, and to cope up with variability, India would need to develop appropriate science, technology and skill.

Popularly known as the summer monsoon, it is during the boreal (northern hemisphere) summer that the cool dry southeast trades of the Indian and Pacific Oceans cross the equator and become warm moist wind system and produce frequent rains/rain spells over the Asia-Pacific region. To understand impact of global warming on India, it is essential to understand monsoon circulation and its association with global temperature.

The monsoon circulation : The troposphere's (from surface to 15 km) temperature during June through September over the dry province of Middle East is -8.8°C. It is warmer (thicker) compared to the troposphere over the whole globe by 10°C. However, it is the presence of hot troposphere over the Middle East (henceforth referred to as monsoon hot tropospheric tower, MHoTT), which is the essential condition for the occurrence of summer circulation.

The Author are Head and Research Scholars, respectively, in Climatoloy and Hydrometeorology Division, Indian Institute of Tropical, Meteorology, Pune. Email : nsingh@tropmet.res.in

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Wild Life Conservation
Staff Reporter
 

The state of Chhattisgarh houses several species of endangered wild life. Encroachment by people and destruction of natural habitat threatens the existence of these animals. The State has initiated a variety of conservation projects which are aimed at creating environs where animals and people can live in symbiotic relationship..

Chhattisgarh is a young state, but an ancient land, referred to in ancient texts, inscriptions, literary works and accounts of foreign travelers as Dakshin Kosala. Biogeographically, India is situated at the trijunction of three realms namely, Afro-tropical, Indo-Malayan and Palæo-Arctic. This assemblage of three distinct realms makes the country rich and unique in biological diversity. Chhattisgarh is situated in the Deccan biogeography; and therefore, houses an important part of India's biodiversity. What is more conspicuous is that the State is significantly rich in endemism with respect to many plants of medicinal importance. The forests fall under two major types - the Tropical Moist Deciduous and the Tropical Dry Deciduous.

It is also a home to numerous rare and endangered wildlife species including the wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis arnee) - the State animal, which is the purest wild strain of buffalo in the world - and, the hill mynah (Gracula religiosa), declared as the State bird. There is a large variety in the genetic composition within species as well. Chhattisgarh is extremely rich in native wild varieties of paddy, silkworms and aromatic herbal plants as well as in mixed tropical deciduous forest tree species. Approximately, 44 per cent of the State is under forests.

The State has established protected reserves - 3 national parks (NP) and 11 wild life sanctuaries (WLS) covering a forest area of 8023 sq km - corresponding to one-fourth of the total area under forests in Chhattisgarh. The State follows 'total ecosystems preservation' management approach in the core areas, and eco-development for conservation in the buffer zones. It also plans to create bio parks for ex situ conservation. Around 13.42 per cent of the forest area has been developed to conserve and increase the number of wild animals. Guru Ghasidas National Park and Bhoramdeo Sanctuaries have been notified after the formation of the state of Chhattisgarh in 2001. The major wildlife species include tigers, leopards, chinkara, black buck, sambhar, barking deer, wild dog, wild boar, jackals, hyena, and crocodiles.
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The Mishmi Hunter of Arunachal
AMBIKA AIYADURAI

The inevitability of forest dependence amongst tribes in Arunachal creates a paradox in wild life protection. The tussle is between livelihood, traditional practices and conservation concerns. It is argued that modern market linked commercial actives are far more responsible for destruction of wild life in the frontier regions. The current and future conservation approach must take cultural realities of hunting, contemporary economic processes and people's perspectives into account to succeed.

"Which animal did Salman Khan hunt-why was he arrested?" asked a Mjiu Mishmi villager, his voice filled with curiosity. I had fenced many such questions in the tribal villagers of Arunachal-who unabashedly hunt wild animals. Undeterred I whipped out the mammal and bird field guides that I carry to break the ice and answer him with ease. I showed pictures of the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), and the chinkara (Gazella gazella bennetti), the two ungulate protected species that were allegedly shot in 1998 by the actor. Suddenly, every villager wanted to take a look and chattered incessantly about 'Salman's animals'.

I was puzzled by their reaction. One of the villagers explained, "Salman Khan hunted these animals, and he was put behind bars. Here we hunt animals every day, but we are not arrested!" Wildlife hunting is an integral part of the Mishmi culture and local tales are replete with examples of exceptional courage by the skilled hunters.
The making of Arunachal : In 1914, hill areas of the northern districts of Assam were separated, to form the North East Frontier Tracts and in 1950 named North East Frontier Agency (NEFA) administered by the Governor of Assam. NEFA was later made a union territory and eventually granted statehood in 1987 as Arunachal Pradesh. The Inner Line Act of 1873, enacted by the British, and the Restricted Area Permit even after India's Independence ensured people from the rest of the country could not enter the State without official permission, isolating it through the decades. The State has the highest green cover in the country.

The Author is a researcher, working on anthropological issues in the north east of India. Email : aiyadurai@googlemail.com

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Monglajodi
SUMIT CHAKRABORTY

 

It was a land of hunters. Every home of this poverty stricken village possessed a gun, and winter was boom time. With country boats and loaded guns they foraged the vast wetland for prized migratory birds, firing with perfect precision. Poaching raked in as much as Rs. 25000 per month till about 1997 when a magical transformation happened-the hunters foresaw their barren future, and turned protectors. Today the notorious poachers are very important members of 'Shree Shree Mahavir Pakshi Suraksha Samity'.

The land : Monglajodi wetland is a 300 sq km freshwater swamp at the northeastern edge of Chilika Lagoon, about 60kms southwest of Bhubaneshwar off NH 5 and 4kms southeast of Tangi town in Khurda district of Orissa. The vast wetland provides a wonderful habitat to birds of almost 236 species, most of which are migratory-pintail, northern shoveller, bar headed goose, brahmani ducks, etc. The spot-billed pelican, Pelecanus philippensis, featured in the near threatened category of IUCN Red List, is also seen here. Monglajodi is covered with emergent vegetation, the reed beds mostly consist of Typha angustata and Phragmites karka, and it supports over two to three lakh waterfowl in winter with populations of 15 species exceeding 1 per cent of their bio-geographical population. The site has been recognised as one of India's important bird areas (IBA), (http://www.birdlife.org) which are identified on the basis of a set of internationally accepted criteria-Monglajodi is classified under A1 + A4i + A4iii criteria of IBA.

The birds are considered a delicacy here and a good quantity is consumed locally while regularly sold in the open market, at rates varying from Rs 25 to Rs 70 a piece, depending on the species. A proficient poacher could earn up to Rs 25,000 per month in winter. The authorities were helpless, as local sentiments as well as political involvement remained high. Thus conservation was shelved to accommodate livelihoods of the 3000 odd villagers. Different forms of bird killing were practiced-nets, traps, guns, poisoning, etc. The method of poisoning has been responsible for the maximum number of deaths here, as an array of cheap poisons are readily available and the practice requires little effort and time.

The Author is an independent writer and photographer from Kolkata. Email: goodfriend19@gmail.com

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